GRAPH NAME SOFTWARE AND LANGUAGES *** ## NODE 1 NAME PLANKALKÜL DATE 1945 PLACE Germany WHO Konrad Zuse BRIEF DESCRIPTION Konrad Zuse develops Plankalkül, one of the earliest known designs for a high-level programming language. It included structures for representing data, logical operations, and procedures, although it was not practically implemented during its initial development. LINK *** ## NODE 2 NAME A-0 SYSTEM DATE 1952 PLACE USA WHO Grace Hopper BRIEF DESCRIPTION Grace Hopper develops the A-0 system to automate the association between symbolic instructions and previously compiled routines. The work represents a direct precursor to compilers, assemblers, and tools for higher-level programming. LINK *** ## NODE 3 NAME FORTRAN DATE 1957 PLACE USA - New York WHO IBM BRIEF DESCRIPTION IBM distributes the FORTRAN compiler developed by a team led by John Backus. The language allows scientific calculations to be expressed using high-level notation and demonstrates that a compiler can generate efficient code for numerical applications. LINK *** ## NODE 4 NAME LISP DATE 1958 PLACE USA - Massachusetts - Cambridge WHO John McCarthy BRIEF DESCRIPTION John McCarthy develops LISP as a language oriented toward symbolic processing. Its model based on lists, functions, and recursive evaluation has a fundamental influence on functional programming and early artificial intelligence research. LINK *** ## NODE 5 NAME COBOL DATE 1959 PLACE USA WHO CODASYL BRIEF DESCRIPTION The CODASYL committee develops COBOL for administrative applications and business data processing. Its syntax was designed to facilitate operations on records and files and to promote portability across different computer systems. LINK *** ## NODE 6 NAME ALGOL 60 DATE 1960 PLACE France - Paris WHO ALGOL COMMITTEE BRIEF DESCRIPTION ALGOL 60 formalizes block structures, lexical scope, and systematically described syntax. Its design directly influences numerous later languages and the methods used to specify programming-language grammars. LINK *** ## NODE 7 NAME CTSS DATE 1961 PLACE USA - Massachusetts - Cambridge WHO MIT BRIEF DESCRIPTION The Compatible Time-Sharing System allows multiple users to interact with a computer while sharing its resources through time division. The system contributes to the development of interactive operating systems, user sessions, and multiuser administration. LINK *** ## NODE 8 NAME OS/360 DATE 1964 PLACE USA WHO IBM BRIEF DESCRIPTION IBM develops OS/360 to operate the System/360 family. Its scale and complexity expose problems of coordination, integration, planning, and reliability that later become central concerns in the discipline of software engineering. LINK *** ## NODE 9 NAME MULTICS DATE 1965 PLACE USA - Massachusetts - Cambridge WHO MIT, BELL LABORATORIES AND GENERAL ELECTRIC BRIEF DESCRIPTION Multics develops advanced concepts for multiuser operating systems, virtual memory, segmentation, protection, and hierarchical file organization. Several of its ideas influence later operating systems. LINK *** ## NODE 10 NAME SOFTWARE ENGINEERING DATE 1968 PLACE Germany - Garmisch-Partenkirchen WHO NATO SCIENCE COMMITTEE BRIEF DESCRIPTION The NATO conference on software engineering uses the term to address difficulties associated with developing increasingly large and complex software systems. The discipline begins to consolidate around processes, design, quality, testing, and maintenance. LINK *** ## NODE 11 NAME STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING DATE 1968 PLACE Netherlands WHO Edsger W. Dijkstra BRIEF DESCRIPTION Dijkstra argues against the indiscriminate use of control transfers through GOTO and favors understandable control structures. These ideas contribute to structured programming and methods intended to reduce complexity and improve verifiability. LINK *** ## NODE 12 NAME UNIX DATE 1969 PLACE USA - New Jersey WHO Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie BRIEF DESCRIPTION Unix begins development at Bell Laboratories as a multiuser and multitasking operating system. It introduces an organization based on small tools, files as a common abstraction, and program composition through simple interfaces. LINK *** ## NODE 13 NAME PASCAL DATE 1970 PLACE Switzerland - Zürich WHO Niklaus Wirth BRIEF DESCRIPTION Niklaus Wirth develops Pascal as a structured language oriented toward education and systematic programming. Its type system and control structures contribute to the spread of structured programming practices. LINK *** ## NODE 14 NAME C LANGUAGE DATE 1972 PLACE USA - New Jersey WHO Dennis Ritchie BRIEF DESCRIPTION Dennis Ritchie develops C at Bell Laboratories for systems programming. The language combines high-level abstractions with efficient access to hardware resources and becomes the primary basis for rewriting and porting Unix. LINK *** ## NODE 15 NAME SMALLTALK DATE 1972 PLACE USA - California - Palo Alto WHO XEROX PARC BRIEF DESCRIPTION The development of Smalltalk consolidates a programming model based on objects exchanging messages. The environment integrates language, graphical interface, and interactive tools and has a major influence on object-oriented programming. LINK *** ## NODE 16 NAME SQL DATE 1974 PLACE USA - California - San Jose WHO Donald Chamberlin and Raymond Boyce BRIEF DESCRIPTION IBM develops SEQUEL, later named SQL, as a declarative language for querying and manipulating relational data. Its approach allows users to specify what information is required without directly defining the physical procedure used to retrieve it. LINK *** ## NODE 17 NAME C++ DATE 1985 PLACE USA - New Jersey WHO Bjarne Stroustrup BRIEF DESCRIPTION C++ is published as an evolution of C with mechanisms for data abstraction, classes, and object-oriented programming. It maintains substantial compatibility with C while introducing tools for structuring software systems of greater complexity. LINK *** ## NODE 18 NAME POSIX DATE 1988 PLACE USA WHO IEEE BRIEF DESCRIPTION POSIX establishes standardized interfaces for Unix-compatible operating systems. The standardization facilitates application portability through common definitions for processes, files, signals, and other system interfaces. LINK *** ## NODE 19 NAME PYTHON DATE 1991 PLACE Netherlands WHO Guido van Rossum BRIEF DESCRIPTION Python is released as a high-level language with dynamic typing, automatic memory management, and an emphasis on readability. Its design facilitates general programming, automation, data analysis, and later scientific and machine-learning applications. LINK *** ## NODE 20 NAME LINUX DATE 1991-08-25 PLACE Finland - Helsinki WHO Linus Torvalds BRIEF DESCRIPTION Linus Torvalds publicly announces the development of a new kernel for computers compatible with the x86 architecture. Linux later evolves through collaborative development and becomes an important foundation for servers, embedded systems, and computing platforms. LINK *** ## NODE 21 NAME JAVA DATE 1995 PLACE USA - California WHO SUN MICROSYSTEMS BRIEF DESCRIPTION Sun Microsystems introduces Java as a language and platform based on execution through a virtual machine. Its model promotes binary portability, automatic memory management, and the development of applications independent of a specific hardware implementation. LINK *** ## NODE 22 NAME GIT DATE 2005 PLACE Finland WHO Linus Torvalds BRIEF DESCRIPTION Git is developed as a distributed version-control system to manage development of the Linux kernel. Its model allows complete histories to be maintained locally, branches to be created efficiently, and distributed development to be coordinated among large numbers of participants. LINK